Immanuel Velikovskys Claims free essay sample

An outline of Immanuel Velikovskys hypotheses of wonderful occasions. A contention against a portion of his thoughts. A gander at Immanuel Velikovskys hypotheses of the defense of inexplicable occasions which he asserted had been brought about by major galactic occasion. The writer centers predominantly around the cases laid out in his famous book, Worlds in Collision. Immanuel Velikovsky, writer of Worlds in Collision, was perused when it went to the writings of old societies. In his book he contends that our close planetary system has changed drastically inside the most recent couple of centuries, affecting impressively on the course of history on Earth. I will endeavor to show that his announcement, in light of these old compositions, is defective. He doesn't scrutinize the veracity of the writings and takes everything said as exacting, leaving them enormously not entirely clear. I will likewise outline how Velikovskys hypothesis is refuted by geographic proof, which he neglects to examine. We will compose a custom paper test on Immanuel Velikovskys Claims or on the other hand any comparative theme explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page

BLOOD AND BELONGING :: essays research papers fc

     This is an investigate of the book, Blood and Belonging, by Michael Ignatieff. This paper will clarify the subject of the book and its significance, examine Michael Ignatieff's techniques and ends on the subject lastly incorporate an individual investigate of the book by the creator of this paper.      The writer of the book goes on what he terms "the six journeys." On these "journeys" he experiences various societies, as he goes to six distinctive corresponding zones of the world. He looks at the special articulation of patriotism that every people shows by meeting different individuals from that specific culture. The six regions that he goes to are explicitly picked for the lucidity which patriotism is communicated in the public eye. Patriotism is a factor contributing toward both present conceivable future precariousness in these territories.      These territories are previous Yugoslavia (explicitly Croatia and Serbia), Germany, Ukraine, Quebec, Kurdistan and Northern Ireland. As indicated by Ignatieff, in Croatia and Serbia there is a craving for a separate character between the two countries. The dread of losing one's national character has caused ethnic contempt. A fear so solid and truly steady, it has driven individuals to an edgy state to do anything. This is an enormous supporter of the explanations behind the extraordinary viciousness present there today. The creator states, "A Croat, subsequently, is somebody who isn't a Serb. A Serb is somebody who isn't a Croat." This citation significantly communicates the shallow attitude present in their contention.      In his movements in Germany, the creator calls attention to a significant question. Does the country make the state, or the express the country? This inquiry by a long shot doesn't stop here, particularly when Germany is the subject. The embodiment of the German individuals is seen by some as forceful what's more, hostile, in this manner the presence of the German issue. On the off chance that the country makes the state then Germany will consistently be a danger. On the off chance that the state makes the country, at that point the forceful idea of the German country, which lead the world into two worldwide wars, can be outfit and diverted. The inquiry has its underlying foundations and replies in the ongoing reunification of Germany.      The Ukraine is worried about not being Russian. It is here Ignatieff gets a total vision of what patriotism is. He states, "I comprehend what patriotism truly is: the fantasy that an entire country could resemble a gathering; singing similar songs, tuning in to the

New Student Photo Series 2010 Entry #1 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

New Student Photo Series 2010 Entry #1 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Today the blog kicks of the second annual new student summer photo series.   We welcome recently admitted students to submit photos and details about how to do so and what to include an be found in this entry. The first set of photos come from Zhang Bingyuan, an incoming MIA student from China. ___________________________ The first photo shows my home in Suzhou city in the province of Jiangsu. It’s a very traditional Chinese garden and we raise lots of fishes in the pool. They often get mad about food, which is shown in the second photo. This photo is my aunt Yuan Aihong. She is a Beijing Opera singer and that was her performing Drunken Yang Guifei, a renowned beauty of the Tang dynasty. _______________________________ The next photo comes from Karin Vazquez, an incoming MIA student that will focus in Economic and Political Development.   Her comments are below. _______________________________ Just like you, one day I will devote some time to taking photography classes. In the meantime I would be glad to share the photo attached with other SIPA students. Believe it or not, it was taken by accident during my honeymoon trip to Mostar (Bosnia-Herzegovina) last year. I was trying to focus the road sign when the poor little boy came up to the car window begging for money. A quick note: in Boznia-Herzegovina road signs are in both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Due to the continuing ethnic disputes, however, the cyrillic scripts in the road signs close to the countrys border with Croatia are all spray-painted out. The opposite happens in the border with Serbia, where the Latin scripts in road signs are covered with spray-paint. Reconciliation is clearly another generation or two away. Begginers luck or human tragedy? I would say both, unfortunately. ___________________________ And the final photo today comes from Anoushavan Hambardzoumyan, an incoming MPA student. ___________________________ This photo taken by me at the central Armenian village of Bazmaberd. The man in the photo is a worker at the local stone-cutting factory. The photo was taken in 2009.

Impact of the Increasing RMB Exchange Rate Changes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2479 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? Introduction With the advent of the G20 Summit, the future change of the RMB exchange rate becomes the hot topic. In respect that China is characterized for the great amount of the exporting business which accounts for the large proportions of the Gross Domestic Product, the impact caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate will destroy the competency of the Chinese products. But to the petroleum industry in China, the increasing RMB exchange rate might give some positive impact on the Chinese national petroleum companies especially under the condition that the crude petroleum import increases every year. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Impact of the Increasing RMB Exchange Rate Changes" essay for you Create order In order to find out the possible impact of the increasing RMB exchange rate on the Chinese national petroleum companies, this essay will firstly discuss the relationship between the operation of the Chinese national companies and the increasing RMB exchange rate. Following that, it will analyze the benefits and risks that might be caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate. Lastly, it will discuss the feasible measures that can be adopted to eliminate the negative impact given by the increasing RMB exchange rate. Since the major Chinese national petroleum companies are CNOOC, CPI and CNPC (Rice, 2010), these companies will be illustration used in the analysis of this essay. Relationship between the operation of the Chinese national petroleum companies and the increasing RMB exchange rate The value china of the petroleum business consists of the segments of petroleum prospecting, petroleum production, petroleum product refining, petroleum product processing, sales and distribution (Petrostrategies, 2010). In respect that China is not rich in the petroleum resource and has the difficulty in exploiting the petroleum, the emphasis of the Chinese oil companiesÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ business is focused on the middle and lower reaches of the value chain such as the petroleum product refining and processing, sales and distribution (CNOOC, 2010; SINOPEC, 2010; CNPC, 2010). What is more, the rapid economic development boosts the great demand of the energy and the petroleum products. China has to rely on the increasing crude oil import to satisfy the increasing needs. As the state owned enterprises, most of the crude oil of the CNOOC, SINOPEC and CNPC is imported from the foreign countries such as the petroleum production companies in t he Middle East. Therefore, the changes of the RMB exchange rate certainly influence the manufacturing costs of these national oil companies. If the RMB exchange rate is increased, the Chinese national companies will have the advantage in bringing on the costs expended in the upper reach of the petroleum value chain (Jin, 2010). In addition, even though the proportion of the petroleum prospecting and production is not as large as the other parts, the Chinese national petroleum companies still engage in the research and develop of these two segments of the business. Due to the intensive large capital required in the research and development as well as the introduction and cooperation with the international petroleum, the increasing RMB exchange rate does good to bringing down the cost caused by these activities. In the overall perspectives, similar to the upper reach of the value chain, the activities of the petroleum sales and distribution in the lower chain also benefits from the increase of the RMB exchange rate. In terms of the international competition, after the final processing, the crude oil will be ultimately turned into the different types of chemical products. And some of these chemical products will be exported and sold in the international market. As the part of the overall product cost can be attributed from the cost of the crude oil, the decreasing crude oil cost caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate will be brought down accordingly (Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2010). Other things being equal, the increasing RMB exchange will result in the increase in the competency of these chemical products within the international market. However, the increasing RMB exchange rate acts like a double-edged sword on this issue. In the long term perspective, the increas ing could increase the manufacturing and labor cost. In the end, the increasing cost would be equal to the cost saved, leading to the absence of the product competency caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate. At the same time, this product competency increased can also help the Chinese national petroleum companies prevent their market shares from losing to the internal petroleum companies within the domestic market. However, as for the petroleum product refining and processing activities of the Chinese oil companies, the increasing RMB exchange rate does not have much influence. This is because that the cost of the petroleum product refining and processing activities is influenced by the internal management capability in a greater extent. Moreover, the refining and processing technique is relatively mature that the Chinese national petroleum companies do not need to seek the international collaboration in this field. As it can be seen, due to the different relation between different parts of the Chinese national petroleum company value chain and the RMB exchange rate, the influence given by the increasing RMB exchange rate will be varied along of different segments of the petroleum value chain. The benefits caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate In light of the relationship analysis between the operation of Chinese national petroleum companies and the RMB exchange rate, it can be found out that the increasing RMB exchange rate brings more advantages than disadvantages to the competency of the Chinese national petroleum products. Besides, there are some other benefits brought to the development of the Chinese national petroleum. In terms of the corporate strategy realization, the increasing RMB exchange rate gives positive impact on the sustainable development of the Chinese national petroleum companies. Since the petroleum is the scarce but unsustainable resource and the research and development of the related production is at the great cost and time consuming, the increasing RMB exchange rate brings the advantages of bringing down the cost of technology introduction and international collaboration. In terms of the actual petroleum operation, the strategy petroleum reserve is so important in the current days that the Chinese government implement this strategy via the action of the Chinese national petroleum companies. The strong purchasing power of the RMB favors the decrease of the petroleum bought from the foreign countries. Even though there might the belief that the this advantages might be eliminated in the long run, the petroleumÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢s attributes of being scarce but unsustainable makes it necessary and significant to reserve the petroleum. Furthermore, the increasing RMB is good for satisfying the great demand of petroleum caused by the rapid development of China, decreasing the chance of economic disturbance caused by lack of adequate petroleum. The risks caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate In respect that the Chinese national petroleum companies also have business operation with the international industrial counterparts and customers, the increasing RMB exchange also brings the risks to the operation of the Chinese national petroleum companies. The major risk brought by the increasing RMB exchange rate lies in the accounting perspective. This accounting risk shows in two aspects. Firstly, some assets of the Chinese national petroleum companies are recorded in the foreign currency due to the convenience of international business operation. Switching the foreign currency to the national currency might cause the book loss in light of the increase of the RMB exchange rate (McKinnon, 2009). Take CNPC for example, CNPC buy the crude oil as its inventory. In year 1995, the exchange rate was 8.31 Yuan for one dollar and the price for each barrel of crude oil was 15 dollars which was equal to 124.65 Yuan on average (China National Petroleum Corporation, 2010). In year 2008, the RMB exchange rate was raised that the official exchange rate become 7.8 Yuan for one dollar and the price for each barrel of crude oil was 60 dollars which was equal to 468 Yuan on average. Ignoring the influence of the crude oil price changes, the increasing RMB exchange rate can make the company lose at least 6.12% if the crude oil was recorded in the value of US dollar. And the increasing crude oil price would enlarge the book loss. This typically demonstrates the exchange risk occurred in the accounting perspective. The size of the risk caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate will be varied in light of the currency used in the book keeping. Secondly, the Chinese national petroleum companies have affiliated agencies established in the international market and these business entities also have their own financial statements. Combining these financial statements into the financial report of the parent company will probably cause the book loss because of the exchange rate changes (Bradley Moles, 2002). Another risk caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate will be shown in the economic perspective (Ahmed Omneya, 2007). This is the economic risk, which is the uncertainty lying in the changes of the interest rates, products, labor cost and the market demand. And the changes of the exchange rate are the ultimate cause of inducing these uncertainties. The increasing RMB exchange rate will bring up the price of the Chinese chemical products that are the one of main income sources relied by Chinese national petroleum companies. The increasing price will weaken the productÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¬ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢s competency, which results in the decreasing demand towards the Chinese chemical products. What is more, the lower demand of the lower downstream product might lead to the lower demand of the upstream material that is the crude oil (Commodities, 2010). The last risk caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate will show in the perspective of the transaction exposure (Sohnke Gordon, 2007). This is because that the Chinese national petroleum companies engage in many investment and financial activities all over the world. The contracts of these activities are signed without paying attention to the exchange rate changes over the contract term. In addition, these situations also occur in the international as to the oil and gas and the international engineering service collaboration. The variation of the exchange rate happening after signing the contracts or before finishing the account settlement might let these companies suffered from lose increasing or income decreasing. What is more, the Chinese national petroleum companies also engage in the business of foreign exchange trading which is aimed at decreasing its potential loss caused by the changes of the exchange rate. The uncertainties lied in the foreign exchange trading might bring the risk exposure caused by holding the foreign currency. In the recent years, the emphasis paid to the financial system and related regulation by the Chinese national petroleum companies such as CNPC and SINOPEC proves the fact that the risk exposure of foreign exchange trading can have huge impact on the financial performance of these companies (Chen, 2010). The measures adopted to handle the risks caused by the changes of the increasing RMB exchange rate In order to avoid the negative impact given by the risks caused by the increasing RMB exchange rate, there are two types of measures should be taken. One is taken in advance while the other is taken afterwards the issues. In terms of the measures taken in advance, these measures mainly focus on adopting the measures to prevent the risks caused by the exchange rate when the company is signing the contracts. These measures are taken according to the willingness of the business entities. To be specially, the Chinese national petroleum companies should conduct analysis on the exchange rate. The Chinese national petroleum companies should adopt the flexibility of pricing about their products and service in light of the exchange rate by making good use of the information system. In making the tender, these companies should take the changes of the exchange rate into consideration. Furthermore, the company should choose the currency of denomination in a proper manner. These companies should choose the currency that has stable exchange rate or the trend of appreciation in recording the income while they should choose the currency that has the trend of depreciation in recording the expense. Besides, these compa nies should stick to the principle of carrying out the financing and spending by using the same type of currency so as to prevent themselves from the exchange rate risk. In addition, in collaborating with the international counterparts in terms of the petroleum or gas exploitation and engineering technology service, these companies should try their best to match the foreign exchange claims and debts in terms of currency type, size and time. Adjusting the types of currency used in debt obligation, bringing forward or defer the time period of repaying the debts are the major means to realize the match mentioned above. Lastly but not the least, these companies should learn to share the exchange rate risks with cooperation partners. In terms of the measures taken afterwards, these measures refer to the practices to be taken only if the utilization of contracts fails in eliminating the influence caused by the exchange rate. First of all, making good use of the foreign trade financing tools helps the Chinese national petroleum companies to avoid the exchange rate risk. Besides, using these financing tools does good to improving the turnover rate of the corporate working capital and shorten the period of exchange settlement. Moreover, the Chinese national petroleum companies should use the derivatives such as futures and swaps to limit the changes of exchange rate within the acceptable scope so as to determine the income and cost in the future. This practice is widely used in CNOOC and help the company avoid the unnecessary book loss (Credit Suisse, 2010). There are several aspects that need special attention particularly the proportion of the hedge. The utilization of derivatives requires the mangers have strong u nderstanding on these complicated financing tools. Otherwise, the risks of using these tools will be greatly excel the benefits brought by them. Hence, for realizing the purpose of reducing the risks caused by changes of the exchange rate, it is advisable for the Chinese national petroleum companies to use the simple financing tools such as ordinary option and forward. Conclusion By reviewing the possible impact of the increasing RMB exchange rate on the Chinese national petroleum companies, it can be found out that the influence given by the increasing RMB exchange rate will be varied along of different segments of the petroleum value chain. The increasing RMB exchange rate will bring the benefits that consist of short-term advantages in obtaining resources and long-term sustainable development to the Chinese national petroleum companies. However, this also brings the risks to the companies, which are shown the aspects of accounting, economics and transaction. In order to reduce the influence caused by these risks, two types of measures can be adopted. The measures to be taken in advance consist of proper analysis on exchange rate change, choosing suitable currency in exchange settlement, match between the foreign claim and obligation, sharing the exchange rate risk. The measures to be taken afterwards emphasize the importance of using suitable financing too ls to engage in risk hedging.

Critical or Transitional Temperature - 1690 Words

BASIC CONCEPT Critical temperature: The temperature at which the resistance of a material suddenly drops to zero is termed as critical or transition temperature. Superconductors: The phenomenon of disappearance of electrical resistance below a certain temperature is termed as superconductivity and the material in this state is termed as superconductor. The resistance of a metal decreases with decrease in temperature and reaches a certain minimum value but the process of cooling down a material in order to convert into a superconductor is very costly and hence a lot of research was undertaken for this purpose. They have zero resistance and perfect diamagnetism. https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTqUWD_mZmMFri_68IDz0XPxJunW7iX8uje1M3cmbVvdPtyCKl6wA Meissner effect: When a superconductor is cooled below critical temperature in an external magnetic field then the lines of induction at transition are pushed out of the material and this phenomenon is termed as Meissner effect. Application of strong magnetic fled results in breakdown of the superconductor and loses its superconducting properties. Based on the breakdown superconductors are of two types, they are: †¢ Type 1: Superconductivity is destroyed with the application of magnetic field greater than a certain value, Hc1. . †¢ Type 2: Superconductivity of the material reaches a mixed state with the application of magnetic field greater than a certain value, Hc1. where the magnetic field can penetrate theShow MoreRelatedTemperature Mediated Moose Survival1389 Words   |  6 Pages Lenarz et al. 2009 Summary Complete citation. 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The Evaluation And Possible Solutions Of Egypt’s Current Energy Crisis Free Essays

Egypt, one of the cradles of civilization, is distinguished by its tourist industry due to its mysterious cultural attributes and long history. Its abundant touristic resources and attractions made Egypt an admiration of travelers all over the world. Consequently, the tourist industry has become an essential role of Egypt’s economic foundation. We will write a custom essay sample on The Evaluation And Possible Solutions Of Egypt’s Current Energy Crisis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Moreover, Egypt is also regarded as the largest non-OPEC (organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) country in the continent of Africa (Payne, 2012). According to Payne (2012), Egypt’s daily yield of crude oil is approximately 700,000 barrels, and since the year of 2008, Egypt has discovered 7 crude oil and natural gas deposits. Among them, the largest detection produces around 58000 barrels of crude oil and 2. 8 million cubic feet of natural gas every day. (Graeber, 2013). Norton Rose Fulbright, an international business organization, has also indicated that Egypt possesses a total capacity of 4. 4 billion barrels of crude oil and 78 trillion cubic feet of natural gas in its deposits. Ironically, even with such unique financial advantages and bountiful domestic natural resources, Egypt is now undergoing the most severe energy crisis in its history. This tremendous energy scarcity has already resulted in a soaring of food prices, and regular blackouts of household electricity, if this deficiency continues it could further threaten the livelihood of Egyptian citizens or even lead to serious social security issues. Kirkpatick (2013) pointed out in his report that because diesel machineries are the most common apparatus Egyptian use to irrigating and harvesting their crops, the insufficiency of fossil fuel has disabled numerous famers from yielding crops in the harvest season. It is not only the farmers who are despairing, the employees who need to commute a long distance for work also feel miserable due to the fact that the scarcity of gasoline has doubled the fuel price and caused a long queue in every gas station. Furthermore, the electricity blackouts have made the electricity in vital public facilities such as schools and hospitals unstable, thus tremendously impaired the quality of medical and educational affairs. More seriously, an evaluation of International Crisis Group has revealed that the fragile political stability accompanied with the growing public panic (concern) toward the inflating of fuel price could ultimately result in the withering of Egypt’s hard-earned democracy (Kirkpatrick, 2013). Before the government can take any action to appropriately resolve this severe energy scarcity, it is extremely crucial for them to be acquainted with the principal causes of this problem. Although several speculations have been made toward the root of this devastating energy crisis through different perspectives, it is generally believed by experts that Egypt’s energy insufficiency is the ultimate result of its incompetent refining technologies, inappropriate subsidizing policies, leaky energy allocating systems, and teetering social security. First of all, the initial element that put Egypt in this vulnerable circumstance is its inadequate refining technology. According to Kirkpatrick (2013) and Payne (2012), Egypt has very restricted capability in refining crude oil into petroleum products such as diesel fuel. Therefore, despite the fact that Egypt holds a considerable amount of domestic energy, they have to rely heavily on the import of petroleum products, and export their crude oil at a much cheaper price. The other primary preexisting factor that contributes to the energy crisis is Egypt’s burdensome subsidizing policy of energy. According to Ragui, an official of Egypt’s Economic Research Forum, nearly 30% of Egypt’s governmental expense can be attributed to the energy subsidy. Moreover, Ragui also pointed out that subsidized fuel cost less than one fifth of its original price (Kirkpatrick, 2013). Although this program is very beneficial to civilians especially in the condition when 40% of Egyptians are below the poverty line, the economists in Egypt have already doubted the practicability of this policy even before the crisis, according to Kirkpatrick’s report (2012), many experts considered this policy untenable. Even though, Egyptian government expended a great effort on subsidizing energies, the leaky distributing system has played a major role that not only negated the benefit of subsidizing policy, but also indirectly resulted in the present energy scarcity. As pinpointed by Hakim’s report (2013), only 20% of subsidized fuels were allocated to those who deserve it, and the other 80% of them did not go to where they were supposed to. Since the Egypt government has difficulty on tracking their fuels, many tanker trucks sell subsidized fossil fuels to black markets for better profit. In addition, because this leaky distributing system made illegal access of fuel more effortless, once the rumor of impending fuel shortage spread out, the inappropriate hoarding of fuel from panicked citizens has increased tremendously, and that, according to Kirkpatrick’s report, is the other significant factor that worsened this energy crisis. The trigger that linked every preexisting factor together and ultimately resulted in Egypt’s energy crisis is the instability of Egypt’s social security. Before the â€Å"2011 Egyptian revolution†, with its thriving touristic industry and expanding foreign investments, Egypt was prosperous. As the growing of the energy demand for their rapidly developing economy and fast expanding population, they put more budgets on importing fuels and subsidizing energy. However, according to Kirkpatrick (2013), after the ouster of Hosni Mubarak, who has been the president of Egypt for more than 30 years, violent protests and mayhem from his advocates have collapsed Egypt’s tourism and unnerved its foreign investors. Without those two essential sources, the economy of Egypt soon contracted and withered to almost one third of its annual income in 2010. Nevertheless, with such a severe economic contraction, Egypt’s energy expenses remained the same. Consequently, the new government was incapable of affording the heavy subsidization, and energy import, therefore, triggered the national wide energy crisis. According to the different perspective, there are various opinions concerning the possible solutions of this energy crisis, however, only few of them are considered as realistic and practical regarding the urgent circumstance of Egypt. Among them, the most practicable solution of Egypt’s energy crisis is to reform the government policy, to improve the distribution system, to accept the loan from the I. M. F. (International Monetary Fund), and to advance the next democratic election date. Although it has been mentioned by several organizations that improving Egypt’s refining technology may be a long-term solution that could terminate Egypt’s demand of importing petroleum products, it is not a preferable solution base on the current circumstances. According to Payne (2012), if Egypt can refine its domestic crude oil, it would produce adequate petroleum products to sustain Egypt’s own energy consumption in a much lower cost. However, the advancing of refinery requires years of development and the investment of foreign technology: the two elements that Egypt is lack of. The turbulent social security of Egypt has unnerved most of its foreign investors (Graeber, 2013), and the deterioration of economy and political stability has urged government to  take immediate action. The other controversial solution is the development of renewable energy. It is highly recommended and encouraged by many energy experts that Egypt should allocate funds to invest in renewable energy technology instead of subsidizing the fossil fuel. Due to its geographical distinction, Egypt possesses massive potential for sustainable energy such as solar energy, wind energy, or geothermal energy. (Norton Rose Fulbright, 2013). The advocates of renewable energy claimed that due to the flawed allocation system, the subsidization policy is an extremely inefficient way to spend funds. They further affirmed that through a specific solar energy project, which can generate about 3-giga watts within 18 months, Egypt’s energy insufficiency will be resolved easily. (Hakim, 2013) However, many economists considered this method unrealistic due to its time consumption and expensive initial expense. They pointed out that it would take at least 3 to 5 years of transition time to invest on the new energy including building new supply chains, setting up generators, and establishing new infrastructures. (Watson, 2012). Moreover, due to Egypt’s abundant crude oil deposits, it is not advisable to invest more currency on developing the other alternative energies, especially in this vital period when the government is already in deep deficit. It is crucial for Egyptian administration to reform their heavy energy subsidization policy in order to alleviate the unbearable burden on their economy. As indicated by Kirkpatrick (2013), by implementing a reduction on energy subsidy, it will not only give the government sufficient funding to import energy, but it will also restore Egypt’s credibility for more international loans and finish this energy crisis even faster. However, reform in policy can be very problematic, especially when subsidy is involved. The teetering political stability of Egypt could be too vulnerable to afford any big change in society. According to the reports of Kirkpatrick (2012,2013), the administration of this reform could be extremely challenging due to the fact that 40% of Egyptians are under the poverty line and most of them possess resentments against the government already because of the existing energy scarcity and the soaring price of food. Kirkpatrick further indicated the difficulty of this reform by stating: â€Å"any potential increase in fuel prices or the price of other basic necessities could spur renewed unrest. † Moreover, even if the government can successfully implement the reform on  its subsidization policy, it is possible for the positive effects to be nullified if the leaky energy distribution system, which is currently preventing Egyptian citizens from purchasing fuel at its original price, stays the same. In order to monitor the allocation of subsidized energy more effectively and make it more accessible to the people who deserve it, the Egyptian government has developed a smart card system that can effectively track the gas trucks and ensure that they reach their destination with whole shipments (Kirkpatrick, 2013). Although this new technology is not nation wide it has received a great success in the villages that adopted it. Moreover, according to Kirkpatrick’s report (2013), Egyptian civilians possess a great hope in this new system. The other factor that could contribute to the solution of Egypt’s energy insufficiency is a $4. 8 billion loan offered by the I. M. F. (International Monetary Fund). This international loan could enable Egypt to import sufficient fuel to temporarily settle the energy crisis in this urgent period. However, although it can effectively secure Egypt from the damage of this energy crisis for awhile, it is not a long-term solution. Moreover, this loan is offered with a condition of the commitment to increase taxes and cut subsidies. Therefore, accepting this loan could stimulate more civil unrest and worsen an already shaky social security. Under the fear of public reaction, despite the advice of the UN, the Egyptian administration refused this offer repeatedly (Kirkpatrick, 2013). Finally, in order to ultimately resolve this problem, find a way to stabilize the political unrest is inevitable. According to the report of Watson (2012), the whole energy crisis occurred initially after the ouster of the former present Hosni Mubarak in 2011 and climaxed after the first democratic president Mohamed Morsi in July 2013. Evidently, the Egypt’s energy crisis is closely related to its political stability. Watson also reported that the core factor of Egypt’s social unrest can be attributed to citizens’ resentment against the military regime. Therefore, in order to change this phenomenon appropriately, it is highly recommended to advance the election date from 2014 to as soon as possible. That way Egypt will not only revitalize its tourism but also gain back most of the foreign investment, thus solve the energy crisis once for all. In conclusion, Egypt’s energy scarcity is mainly leaded by its flawed subsidizing policies, deficient energy distribution system, and shaky social security. Therefore,  in order to resolve this energy crisis appropriately, it is crucial for Egyptian administration to focus and reform these problems one by one. According to the research, the most practicable way to result these problems is to first promote the smart card system, which will help government to allocate subsidized energy more effectively to people who need them. After increase the accessibility of subsidized energy, the government can subsequently implement a reduction on energy subsidy. Due to the teetering social security, it is highly advisable to execute this reduction subtly and appropriately. This reform of Egypt’s subsidy policy will not only largely alleviate the burden of its economy, but will also make Egypt eligible to take the international loan offered by the I. M. F. ; therefore, provide Egypt more funds to import fossil fuel for the sake of its energy crisis. Subsequent to the reform of governmental policy, it is advisable for Egypt to advance the date of democratic election due to the purpose of stabilizing its social security. Once the social security is stabilized, Egypt will be able to revitalize its touristic industry and regain its foreign investment, which will resolve the energy crisis once for all. How to cite The Evaluation And Possible Solutions Of Egypt’s Current Energy Crisis, Papers

Buddhism In America Essay Example For Students

Buddhism In America Essay The stresses and intensity of modern American society have influenced manypeople to adopt and adapt the principles of Buddhism and other Easternreligions. Some recent statistics from the US department of Health and HumanServices show that 75% of the General Population experiences at least somestress every two weeks (National Health Interview Survey). Half of thoseexperience moderate or high levels of stress during the same two-week period. Itis common knowledge that stress can lead to heart disease, high blood pressure,strokes, and other illnesses in many individuals. Stress also contributes to thedevelopment of alcoholism, obesity, suicide, drug addiction, cigaretteaddiction, and other harmful behaviors. It was reported that tranquilizers,antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications account for one fourth of allprescriptions written in the US each year. With so many mental health problems,it is almost reassuring that Eastern religions are steadily growing. Buddhism OnThe Move Easte rn religions have been practiced in Asia and the Subcontinent forthousands of years longer than Christianity. Buddhism, a main religion of Asiahas been practiced in Tibet for Millennia. Buddhism, Zen and Hindu were firstintroduced to the western world in 1893 at the World Religions Conference inChicago. The Dalai Lama represented Buddhism and D.T. Suzuki represented Zen. However, Eastern religions went relatively ignored until 1959, when the Chineseinvasion of Tibet left 1.3 million Tibetans dead and 6,000 Buddhist monasteriesdestroyed. Tibetan refugees escaped to bordering countries and some fled fartherto the US and Europe. Those who fled remembered how the Buddha taught hisenlightened disciples to continue to spread his teachings. With the ChineseInvasion of Tibet, it was as if a dam had burst; suddenly Tibetan wisdom beganto flow freely down from the roof of the world and to the Westand there tofulfill the prophecy come Westerners looking for guidance and eager to developtheir own spiritual lives and transplant the flowering tree of enlightenment totheir own lives.(Das, 29) The first westerners to begin to adopt Easternprinciples were often people on the fringes of society or in the avant-garde ofthe arts, literature, and philosophy. The beatniks in the 50s, the Hippies inthe 60s and 70s. Evidence of eastern thought in the writings of JackKerouac , Hippies ? George Harrison and the Beatles studying with the MaharishiMahesh Yoga. Richard Albert turned his name to Baba Ram Das. In our societytoday, it seems like everyone knows someone into Eastern religion. Frombusinessmen to politicians to celebrities individuals are joining meditatinggroups while still maintaining ties to their traditional faiths to wet theirfeet in more satisfying and less materialistic lives. At retreats yourelikely to find yourself sitting next to a stockbroker or a therapist or aretired social worker who may or may not claim to be Buddhist.(Wood, 3)Unlike the rush of mostly younger Americans to Buddhism that occurred in the1950s and 1960s, the new ranks include a larger percentage of seekers over50(Wood, 2). Now in the West we see many variations of Buddhism, Hinduism,Taoism, and Zen, such as Mahayana, Pali, and Vajpareena. Our new,multi-religious land that combines Eastern and Western religion can be describedas the scientific West arriving at something like the fusion of the Confuciancultivation of virtue through the bonds of family and community, Taoistlaissez-faire and yearning for nature, and Buddhist compassion for mans needfor Nirvana.(Layman, 80) We have adapted religions in many ways to fit ourlives. Buddhism in America is characterized by great diversity, with bothconservative and liberal trends within the same sect and denomination of course,differences in furnishings and hairstyles are superficial, and are eithertangential or irrelevant to the Buddhist system of beliefs and basic way oflife. But fundamental and widespread changes in American Buddhism are occurring. Its priests and adherents are recognizing that Buddhism must be shown to haverelevant approaches to the problems which plague American Society. Accordingly,sermons and lectures delivered by the clergy are making less use ofillustrations recounted by ancient Buddhist saints and are becoming moreapplicable to everyday living in modern American society.(Layman, 32) As aresult, The ancient religion of Buddhism grows even stronger roots in a newworld, with the help of the movies, pop culture, and the politics of repressedTibet. (Van Biema, 1) Because of the inroads that eastern religions have madein our country there is an increase in personal reform via retreats,sanghas ? a circle of friends who regularly meditate together, andself-help groups. We are also undergoing social reform, creating a moreaccepting society, and building upon an ancient religion. The number ofEnglish language Buddhist teaching centers coast to coast has grown from 429 toalmost 2,000(Wood, 1). What makes Eastern Th ought so different from WesternThought. What we currently have in the West, which is a sort ofanti-religious, psychological way of thinkingthese psychologies often workagainst our spiritual side. Buddhism, on the other hand, can help by providingpsychological bridges that will reinforce the spiritual side.(Toms, 143)Unlike Western religions, Eastern religions do not teach commandments, rather,natural ways of ordinary human practice. Nor do they teach right and wrong ?correct and incorrect or wise and ignorant. The Buddha is different from a Godor Jesus in that Buddha became perfectly aware of the nature of reality andnature of the self, and he was then able to remove limitations on manifestationand could actually manifest whatever was most helpful to those around him. Hewas known as Shasta, or teacher, and his objective was to remove the cause ofall suffering to find true happiness. The Buddha can be perceived as omnipotent,he was enlightened and awakened, but he was not the creator . Hinduism, Brahma,Buddhism, Zen, and other Eastern religions are consistent in the belief thatthere are many gods and one creator, only, they are not sure of the truecreator. There are no set areas where one must practice, however, quiet, naturalplaces are encouraged and it can be practiced any time one feels necessary. Itcan be a daily, weekly, yearly or once in a lifetime act, there are no rules asto when a student must pray. The basic tenets and ideas of Eastern religions aregenerally very different from those of Western religions. Mindfulness ? theZen practice of embracing the present, is being profoundly aware of each momentso that people can better appreciate their own lives, and being morecompassionate about the suffering of others. Buddhism tries to make sense out oflife without fear and guilt that some other religions induce. You find the waythat you want to live, open up that way, and then pursue that way. The best wayto live the life you want is to actualize what you rea lize. In otherwords, make real your dreams. Thich Nhat Hanh teaches in Zen that, The othermay be a beautiful sunrise. The other may be your friend, your husband, yourwife. The other is love. Mindfulness helps you recognize what is there thatmakes life real, that makes life possible.(Toms, 19). Buddhism doesntbelieve in God, but believes in the nature of god. They are theistic, only notsure of true creator. The Tibetan vision of reality is in a way, the mostsuper-positive vision of human evolution that one could imagine. The Buddharegarded himself as an empiricist, only relying on that which is known andtestable in experience. What is new to Western thinking is the Buddhist ideathat ethics and spiritual development are also governed by universal laws. Inthe West we have a clear sense of personal and group responsibility for thegovernment and welfare of everyone, set forth by Locke, Rousseau, and others inthe late 18th century and developed for the next 200 years in the democraticsoci eties in Eastern Europe and the Americas. As Western Buddhists, we arebuilding on one tradition of social responsibility that has been cultivated inmonastic settings with such a synthesis of traditions, Buddhism in the Westis sure to apply the precepts in a new way.(Aitken ? written by Tworkov,53) The forms of introspection that have, to date, been available to WesternPhilosophers as the raw materials of their craft, have been very limited intheir scope and have consequently produced limited world views. What has madepeople turn to it. Eastern religions have become as accessible as Westernreligions, because they have spread to every corner of earth. If all else fails,the Internet is a wealth of information. One of the key elements in all ofspiritual life is making ourselves available to others. What young men need isinitiation, someone to whom they can show their stuff and prove it ? otherwisethey do it on the street.(Toms, 849) The main ideas and themes appeal tomany, Buddhist beli ef in using the mind to change our lives provides practicalmethods and exercises that we can use every day to change our perception ofreality. Rather than turning us away from what is best in Western Culture,Buddhism can help us return to it, for the west today is in the grip of a majorcultural crisis of confidence.(Kulananda, 210) Buddhism has become so popularin the West, because it teaches one how to be happier and more aware by use of;seeing things as they are, living a sacred life, speaking the truth, loving,attention and focus on what is important to you, and meditation. These conceptswork with us, because they are easily adaptable and understandable to theWestern way of life. Zen can be adapted to be useful I modern times. Likewater it takes the form of the vessel that contains it without any change in itsnature: water remains water whether it is held in a rice bowl or a coffee mug. Experience The Art Paper EssayMany who seek enlightenment in this day and age may not be able to fulfill theirdestiny within a purely monastic lifestyle.(Simpkins, p.61) Another aspect ofEastern religions that attract Westerners is the ability to be independent inthe search of enlightenment. Jakusho Kwong, Soto Priest and abbot of the SotoZen Buddhist Temple in Genjoji, expresses, Theres a lot to read, andtheres a lot to learn. But for me, the most important thing is whatsyours. What can you call your own? And to know that. Not what Suzuki Roshi said,or Maezumi Roshi said, or Katagari Roshi said. What you say. What it means toyou. Thats the only way. (Tworkov, 103) In Zen terms, we are bornalone, we die alone, and we have realization alone.(Toms, 131) Maintaining aclear awareness of our feelings and sensations, we can open out the gap betweenfeeling and craving. This experience strengthens our intuition of how thingsreally are and a series of ever more intensely positive mental sta tes thereforefollow. Hindu promotes the ability to listen when people need to be heard. Whenasked Whats your road man? Jack Kerouac answered, Holyboy road,madman road, rainbow road, guppy road, its an anywhere road for anybodyanyhow. By saying this, Kerouac means that his path in life is to follow hisTaoist religion, be free from others, seek happiness and peace, innocence ofyouth, and that the path he is on can be universally reached. This just showshow conclusive people can be with their words when they learn what the reallyimportant things are. Eastern religions seek to fulfill self and understand thenature of self. They teach the seeker to let body and mind fall away andlook at the greater picture (Toms, 73). In going for refuge to the Buddha onecommits oneself to becoming more than one is now.(Kulananda, 72) Inseeking happiness by clinging to a restricting, ego-identity, again and again wecause ourselves and others to suffer.(Kulananda, 87) More and more publicfigures such as; Richard Gere, Michael Yauch, Steven Segal, Courtney Love,Oliver Stone, and more, practice the eastern religions and praise theireffectiveness. Yauch is slight and soft-spoken, he says Buddhism, ?feltreal, not hokey. Two generations ago, given his milieu he would have been acuriosity, today he is something of a role model.(Van Biema, 8-9) Easternreligions can be a cheap alternative to psychotherapy because they are verysimilar. Given the sophistication of the Buddhist analysis of the mind andits preoccupation with the eradication of suffering, it is only natural thatstrong similarities have come to be seen between Buddhism and the contemporaryWestern Psychotherapy.(Kulananda, 222) As Buddhism and psychotherapy becomecloser acquainted with one another, there is an emerging trend towards a kind ofpsychotherapeutic Buddhism, where the drive towards enlightenment is replacedwith the overriding impulse to simply come to terms with oneself and feel betterabout oneself and the world. Why ha s it become important to our society. Anything infused into our world today about nonviolence can onlyhelp.(Scorsesce) Most people in our society struggle to find the right views. Right views bring us in touch with some of the most important concepts inBuddhist philosophy. How do you perceive life, death, impermanence, suffering,dissatisfaction, and cause and effect? Do we really believe, and know, that wereap what we sow, or do we regard that as just another clich In the west, weare typically conditioned to push these serious matters aside, and deal withthem later. Buddhism says deal with them now, and youll transform yourlife.(Das, 95) Maintaining a clear sense of our feelings and sensations, wecan open out the gap between feeling and craving. This experience strengthensour intuition of how things are and a series of ever more intensely positivemental states therefore follow. Two Buddhist ideas, that there is a naturalhierarchy of values and that reality is perceived in the imagination, containwithin them the seeds of Western Cultural renaissance. What Buddhism most has tooffer Western Philosophy is the notion that ways of conceptualizing areintertwined with ways of being and although one can go about philosophy as if itwere a purely intellectual exercise, there is little value in that ? thoughtalone cannot apprehend reality. Dharma is timeless not culture bound.(Das,378) Dharma, the cosmic law underlying all existence; combines with the Buddhaand the Sangha (the community of believers), to form the Three Treasures of thefaith. It is one of Buddhisms great strengths that it has at its heart theideal of spiritual fellowship. Today, Buddhism is at a critical juncture asit encounters the West. It is no surprise that there have been formidableculture, linguistic, political, and material barriers to overcome in thetransmission of Buddha Dharma from the East to the West and from the past on tothe present and the future. This is a transition through time as well as throughspace, spanning continents and oceans, from a traditional Oriental world to ascientific postmodern Western Culture.(Das, 378) Modern Western culture ismarked by an unprecede nted degree of technological sophistication and materialabundance. It is highly complex and deeply fragmented.(Kulananda, 25) Allover, people seem torn between a sincere desire to conquer ego and the drive tobe doing so. A great benefit to our society has been the increase in people whomaintain less interest in self and more for the benefit of others, as well asthe increase of knowledge of the effects. The majority of Eastern Religionspromote the ability to listen when people need to be heard. Everything thatlives is subject to decay. All conditioned things are impermanent. To be aliveis to change. Without change we would be absolutely inert, but theun-enlightened human condition is to fight change every inch of the way. Afollowing of well known peoples (celebrities, business men, politicians, etc.)has made Eastern Religion appealing to those who were originally skeptical. Apoem that appeared in New Yorker Magazine shows how Buddhism has practicallybecome a household term ? The huge head of Richard Gere, a tsongablossom / in his hair, comes floating like a Macys / Parade balloon abovesnowcapped summit / of sacred Kailas. Some very outstanding people of theEastern religions have reached out to those in need, like Roshi Bernard Glassman,founder of the Bakery Zendo in Brooklyn, who uses what he learns andteaches to benefit his community. He employs the local homeless and unemployedin his bakery, garment company, and building-renovation services, and housesthem in his large suburban New York mansion where they are allowed to study Zenwith the great master. There has been much progression of Buddhism in the USbecause, Americans have always been a do ? it ? yourself culture, andthis is a do ? it ? yourself philosophy.(Van Biema, 8). But it isdefinite that there will be much more progression. As Richard Gere said,There has not been enough time to ferment and intoxicate the culture inAmerica, but our approach, because were so new at it, has a certain eagernessand exci tement that you sometimes dont see in Tibetans. Westerners askquestions, they take notes. Individuals join meditating groups while stillmaintaining ties to their traditional faiths to wet their feet in moresatisfying and less materialistic lives. The progression of Western views toadapt Eastern ideas can be explained as, Combining monastic views withsecular lifestyle has nonetheless served two functions. It has introduced themonastic dimension of the Japanese Zen tradition to the United States, where itmay someday figure prominently. It has also been a skillful means forestablishing the authority of Zen teachings both within and without thecommunities. (Glassman ? Tworkov, 153) Show major impacts on West Lessmaterialistic lifestyle People search to be better Giving Concerned aboutothers People more in touch with reality People become more aware and acceptingShow impact on my life?

Was the birthplace of Canada at Vimy Rigde

The Bet by Anton Chekhov

The Bet by Anton Chekhov After reading the bet one can see Through the prisoner's decision, the author proves to the reader that money is evil, money teaches life lessons, and when human will is tested it can be impossible to break.This story proves once and for all money is the root of all evil. When the young man told the older man, "The death sentence and the life sentence are equally immoral, but if I had to choose one I would choose the second." This quote caused such excitement for the younger man, but he had no idea what he was soon to get himself into. As the older man made the 2 million/ 5year bet the younger man being young, naive and only thinking of MONEY caused him to over react. The young man said, "I'll take the bet, but I would stay not five but fifteen years!" When the young man made this bet he was corrupted by money and not thinking about anything but his greed.Anton Pavlovich Chekhov. Oil on canvas. From the c...If he would of though about the bet for one day he was of realized he was los ing the best years of his life. So after reading this one has proven that money causes spilt second decisions to be made all the time, and it usually turns out for the worst.In " The Bet" money teaches a few life lessons. When the man is about half was though his "sentence" he realized that he had learned so much that it is a reward in itself. The anther wrote, " In the sixth year the prisoner began zealously studying Languages, Philosophy, and History." If it wasn't for the Two Million he probably would never even thought about trying to teach himself Languages, Philosophy and many other teaching. So pretty much in an indirect...

International Tax and Estate Planning Discussion Post 6 Coursework

International Tax and Estate Planning Discussion Post 6 - Coursework Example Cassandra should also note that the will has legal binding only when at least two witnesses watch when she is signing the will document. Spenceley (2009) advises that the two witnesses will form a reliable defense should someone contests the will in a legal system. Likewise, she should ensure that the witnesses’ signatures are verified by a public attorney. Furthermore, Cassandra is required to make clear and detailed instructions on how to distribute her properties after her demise. In this particular case, she ought to explain in the will that Aidan should inherit the house with Danika as the trustee. She should also mention the sale and subdivision of the sale amount among the three beneficially. If clear instructions are not available, Spenceley (2009) argues that the properties will be distributed according to the state’s intestacy laws Lastly, Cassandra must appoint a person that she trusts to act as her personal representative or executor of her will. The will must clearly identify the executor who will ensure that the will is executed. The trustee plays a significant role in ensuring that minors and beneficiaries living overseas are taken care of according to the provisions of her

The Process of Electrochemical Machining Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 12

The Process of Electrochemical Machining - Essay Example Since most of the metals in the pure state without undergoing any treatment might not serve the intended roles mostly emerging with the current technological know-how. Utilizing Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, machining is normally by way of controlled removal of metal through dissolution an electrolytic cell’s anode (Singal, Mridul & Rishi, 2008). Hence, initiating a current if the electrolyte in which the poles are immersed (in aqueous like NaCl) can adequately allow movement of atoms in such a way it ensures conduction process. The core principle that characterizes this process encompasses rapid as well as the selective dissolution of the workpiece intended to be machined, which acts as an anode and the released components attach themselves on the cathode normally linked to a D.C (Setchi, Howlett, Naim, & Seinz, 2014). Therefore, this study seeks to avail sufficient and precise information regarding ECM process coupled with how current technological know-how has embr aced it in varied applications. The process entails immersion of both the workpiece and anode in the electrolytic aqueous, which in this case it might be NaCl or NaNO3 (Setchi, Howlett, Naim, & Seinz, 2014). The creation of potential between the electrodes takes place with the intention of initiating D.C that will facilitate anode dissolution. It is also through the use of D.C that facilitates a flow of electrons from the piece intended to be worked on goes to the cathode, hence initiating the gas release. In the industrial settings as depicted in Figs 2 and 3, it entails immersing or placing the workpiece in an electrolyte and linking to a high current power source through the +ve terminal (Singal, Mridul & Rishi, 2008). Then the cathode tool to the –ve side and shaped in such a way to fit effectively in the anode’s cavity without making any contact. Even flow of the electrolyte with an approximate 5m/s velocity amid the electrodes is by the aid of a recirculation pump. This is to intensify both mass and charge movement especially through the created sublayer adjacent to the anode piece (Abdel-Gawad, 2013).

Social Identity Theory And Self Categorisation Theory Sociology Essay

Social Identity Theory And Self Categorisation Theory Sociology Essay Social Identity Theory was established by Tajfel and Turner with the aim of trying to understand the psychological basis of intergroup discrimination. Tajfel and Turner (1979) tried to identify conditions which would lead members of a specific social group to behave in a biased matter towards an out-group, in favour of the in-group which they were a member of. It is seen as a discursive approach. The main principle of Social Identity Theory is that people often categorise and define themselves and others into a number of different social groups and strive to have their group valued more highly than other groups (Tajfel Turner, 1985). Consistent with Tajfel and Turners (1985) claim, it is believed, by other psychologists, that social identities are formed to boost self-esteem and encourage a sense of certainty (McGregor, Reeshama and So-Jin, 2008). To explain the phenomenon of how individuals evaluate themselves and others as part of an in-group or an out-group, Social Identity Theor y identifies three mental concepts: social categorisation, social identification and social comparison (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Social categorisation relates to individuals assigning people to social categories in order to understand and identify them (Tajfel Turner, 1979). This results in the world being divided into them and us, or an in-group and an out-group. In the second concept, social identification, people adopt the identity of the social group they have categorised themselves into. This also involves developing an emotional attachment to ones identification with the group and self-esteem will be closely linked to group membership (Tajfel Turner, 1979). The final concept, social comparison, relates to an individual comparing the group they identify with with other groups. To retain ones self-esteem, their group must be viewed in a more positive light than other groups (Tajfel Turner, 1979). Several psychological studies have supported the fact that individuals create so cial categories in order to boost self-esteem. An example of this being when individuals learn that their social group is unacceptable to society, they tend to perceive the out-group as unacceptable as well (Ford Tonander, 1998). Haslam (2001) has identified two types of strategies individuals use to boost their groups status: social conflict and social creativity. Social conflict refers to the in-group undermining the social status of the out-group. This can be done in a violent manner or by way of protests. Social creativity relates to the in-group emphasising group features which they flourish on, by way of advertising these strengths. Haslam (2001) argues that when the in-group does not feel at risk and feel their status is largely secure they will engage in social creativity rather than social conflict. However, when members of the in-group feel threatened they will readily engage in social conflict. A core principle of Social Identity Theory is that ones social identity is no t fixed and cannot predict ones behaviour. Instead, the context and the in-groups salience in the context decides which aspect of an individuals identity is influential in a situation. According to Social Identity Theory, individuals are more inclined to identify with a certain social group if they feel uncertain. Support for this claim comes from McGregor, Reeshma and So-Jin (2008). In their study, participants were required to describe personal conflicts which were caused by unresolved personal problems (uncertainty task). In an attempt to assess out-group derogation, Canadian participants read statements which were critical of Canada, written by a foreign person. The extent to which the Canadian participants disliked and disagreed with the foreigners statement was measured, providing an index of out-group derogation. Additionally, each participant completed a measure of structure requirement. McGregor, Reeshma and So-Jin (2008) found that individuals who sought structure and clar ity were more likely to show out-group derogation after completing the uncertainty task. However, this research used participants from a Western country the same results may not have been generated if Eastern participants took part in the study. The assumptions from these results cannot be generalised to people from different cultures. It can be argued that Social Identity Theory is effective in its claim that people have a biased perception of their own social group compared to other groups, that is, explaining in-group bias. Evidence of this can be seen in the results of Mullen, Brown and Smiths (1992) study into the in-group bias hypothesis. Further support of the claim that identity processes underlie the in-group bias is a report illustrating that members of a social group have higher self-esteem after engaging in discriminatory behaviour (Rubin Hewstone, 1998). Rubin and Hewstone (1998) demonstrate that people show an intergroup distinction to feel good about themselves and the social group which they identify with (Brown, 2000). Brown, Maras, Masser, Vivian and Hewstone (2001) observed that English passengers on a ferry had been refused travel by the actions of French fishermen the out-group and so displayed generally less favourable attitudes towards French people. This supports Social Identity Theorys social comparison concept, in that the English passengers identified so strongly with their national group that they viewed the French in a negative light which in turn, resulted in them retaining their self-esteem. However, Social Identity Theory does have a number of issues which have proved problematic when trying to account for group influence. The theory assumes that a positive social identity is based on positive intergroup comparisons (Brown, 2000). It does make sense to assume that there should be a positive correlation between the strength of group identification and the level of in-group bias. This hypothesis has been tested over the years and still remains of interest to psychologists worldwide (Brown, 2000). Subsequent psychological studies investigating this correlation have shown little support for Social Identity Theory. According to Brown (2000), 14 studies were analysed and the overall correlation between group identification and in-group bias was +0.08, and while 64% of correlations were positive, the mean correlation was not very strong (+0.24). It can be argued, however, that this correlation hypothesis was not actually stated by Tajfel and Turner (1979) when they were develo ping the Social Identity Theory. It is clear from Social Identity Theory that people are motivated to have an in-group bias by the need to see themselves, and the group they identify, within a positive light. Thus, it can be assumed there is a causal link between intergroup distinction and self-esteem. Abrams and Hogg (1988) summarised this concept positive in-group differentiation leads to increased self-esteem and people with low self-esteem show more differentiation in order to boost levels of self-esteem. Social Identity Theory is essentially a theory relating to group differentiation, that is, how members of a specific in-group make this group distinctive from, and better than, an out-group. Therefore, groups which see themselves as similar should be keen to show intergroup differentiation (Brown, 1984). This hypothesis has been tested vigorously over the years with different results. Some studies have generated results which contradict Social Identity Theorys hypothesis Jett en, Spears and Manstead (1996) found that groups that viewed themselves to hold similar attitudes and equivalent status showed more intergroup attraction and less bias then dissimilar groups (Brown, 2000). However, some studies support Social Identity Theory as they have found that intergroup similarity does lead to intergroup differentiation especially if both groups are extremely similar (White Langer, 1999). The concept of social identity as described by Social Identity Theory could be altered by way of having a greater greater acknowledgement of the diversity of social groups that can represent ones social identity. Self-Categorisation Theory also focuses on the concept of intergroup differentiation as a function of identity (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Self-Categorisation Theory is seen as a cognitive theory of behaviour within intergroup contexts and offers explanations about the cognitive processes underlying an individuals self-categorisation and intergroup differentiation processes (Turner, 1999). The theory is seen to be a more elaborate, extended version of the original Social Identity Theory (TaÃ…Å ¸demir, 2011). Turner et al. (1987) argue that Self-Categorisation Theory deals with the social-cognitive basis of intergroup behaviour. Self-Categorisation Theory explains how people form a self-identity in terms of the social categories which they belong to. This also leads to people discriminating between their own category members and people in other categories. The meta-contrast principle explains this process. The meta-contrast principle explains that any number of individuals in a cert ain situation are likely to categorise themselves as a social group when they view differences amongst each other less than the differences between themselves and others in the same situation (Turner, 1985). For that reason, when inter-group differences are more stark than intra-group differences (high meta-contrast ratio), it is believed that people define themselves based on their membership of social groups and they differentiate between the in-group and out-group (Turner, Oakes, Haslam McGarty, 1994). Self-Categorisation Theory states that when individuals identify with a social group, they experience depersonalisation. That is, they perceive every member of their group as interchangeable on a certain level (Turner et al., 1957). Self-categorisation cognitively assimilates the individual to the in-group prototype and so depersonalises self-conception (Hogg and Terry, 2001). Therefore, it is assumed that each group member, including the individual themselves, share the same valu es and morals and so they tend to adhere to group norms (Hogg and Reid, 2006). According to Hogg and Terry (2001), this transformation of self-identity is the process which underlies group phenomena as it brings self-identification in line with the relevant in-group prototype in a certain context. Many psychologists, such as Simon (2004) and Deaux (1993) have challenged this assumption of depersonalisation. A study was conducted by Swann, Gomez, Seyle, Morales and Huici (200) who found a contradiction to the assumption of depersonalisation. In their study, individuals who felt their personal and social identities were linked did not adhere to the norms of the in-group. Instead, they engaged in rebellious behaviour to protect their group even when their identity was threatened. Self-Categorisation Theory promotes the idea that when people self-categorise themselves, they tend to think of themselves more as a member of a social group, rather than as individuals. This includes them bel ieving that they share the same characteristics associated with their group and they behave in ways that they feel members of their group should act. This process is called self-stereotyping (Mackie, Smith and Ray, 2008). As result of this, self-categorisation increases similarity in the in-group. This is because every member of the social group takes on attributes which are seen as characteristic of the group and so every member develops identical qualities. One could argue, therefore, that Self-Categorisation Theory provides an insight into the fact that the group has become part of ones self. Support of this comes from a study by Smith and Henry (1996) who found that group members perceive themselves as like their social group. Although both theories, Self Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory, are different, one could ague that they are similar to an extent. This is because both theories explore how identities are internalised and are used by individuals to define themselves. However, there are several differences between Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory and the way in which they account for group influence. Self-Categorisation Theory focuses more on the cognitive processes of categorisation in a social context whereas Social Identity Theory offers a more discursive approach. Discursive psychologists have been critical of Social Identity Theory over the years. They criticise the theorys assumption that group conflict and differentiation is caused by a worldwide psychological process. Additionally, they feel that the theory is limited as it does not have ecological validity since much of the research into the theory is conducted in Western cultures. There has been an intercultu ral study conducted by Wetherell (1996) who found that children who come from other cultural backgrounds do not discriminate between groups, unlike North American children. Self-Categorisation Theory does not place as much emphasis on the role of self-esteem, unlike Social Identity Theory. Social Identity Theory emphasises the process of self-categorisation into a group and Self-Categorisation Theory emphasises the process of self-stereotyping and identifying oneself based on a social group. According to Taylor and Moghaddam (1994), Self-Categorisation Theory ignores socio-structural factors and is devoid of the passion involved in real-life conflicts. The theory describes humans in the image of thinking machines. Therefore, one contrast between Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorisation Theory is that the latter can be criticised for not paying enough attention to motivational and affective issues. One flaw of Self-Categorisation Theory is that it concentrates on identity forma tion in adults but no attention has been given to the development of identity in infants. There has however been research into this, using the main principles of Self-Categorisation Theory and applying it to children (Barrett, Wilson and Lyons, 1999). One could therefore argue that Self-Categorisation Theory is not efficient when it comes to explaining group influence on children. A success of Social Identity Theory is that other psychologists have used its principles in an attempt to explain extremist social movements. Reicher, Haslam and Rath (2008) explained how the ideas promoted by Social Identity Theory were able to explain Nazism. In conclusion, it is clear that both theories share similarities, but there are also a number of differences between the two. Self-Categorisation Theory has a more cognitive approach to group influence whereas Social Identity Theory has a more discursive approach. Further research into Social Identity Theory could involve people from Eastern countries to give the theory more ecological validity as currently, the majority of studies have used Western participants. Self-categorisation theory focuses too much on the formation of identity and group influence in adults and so more research could be done on children to see if the same assumptions apply.

Microeconomics Research Paper

Nicholas Benyola Professor Mansourian Econ 201- 25 17 May 2012 Microeconomics Research Paper Minimum Wage In the United States, minimum wage has remained at a low number for several years. Minimum wage is defined as the lowest possible income that an employer can legally pay an employee. This ensures that all people are fairly paid and not defrauded by companies or businesses. Minimum wage is considered a price floor and the minimum wage laws determine the lowest price possible that any employer must pay for labor.In an economic model, the quantity of supplied is greater than the quantity demanded and the minimum wage is above equilibrium price and quantity. Minimum wage prevents labor supplied and labor demanded from moving toward equilibrium price and quantity. Although the government is trying to maintain a good balance of income distribution, there are is a high amount of people that work year round and still fall under the national poverty level. The government tries to stop the rich from getting richer, and the poor from getting poorer, so they make sure that everyone is earning the same amount of money.Even if our balanced income distribution is at a good number, an increase of the minimum wage price would help our country in a lot of ways. Raising the current minimum wage is one way to reduce poverty, will help businesses grow, and could help a lot of communities as well. The first advantage of increasing the minimum wage is that it will help poor people to earn a higher income. For many workers, minimum wage is simply not enough money for them to be able to support their families. A higher minimum wage would guarantee a higher quality of life for the people who work in basic jobs such as cleaning and preparing fast food.These workers' economic situations are usually a result of their lack of education and training, and it is often difficult for them to get more education or training because of their economic situation. For many working Americans, an in crease in the minimum wage will make the difference between living in poverty and not. An increase has the potential to help the standard of living for the poorest of people. This is a true statement, but opposition says that this only drives up the standard of living and inflation rate in the world. Inflation is defined as the overall general upward price movement of goods and services in an economy.Although some people who earn the minimum wage are teenagers, almost two-thirds are adults. The average minimum wage worker brings home about half of his family's earnings. Increasing the minimum wage will help these workers to make up for lost ground due to inflation and it will help make work pay. Though inflation is one of the main problems in our economy and even though inflation and minimum wage are directly related, increasing minimum wage will give opportunity for a lot of lower class families to make enough to afford important things, such as insurance.If someone takes a trip to the doctor, with no insurance, they will most likely have to pay around eight- hundred dollars out of pocket. This would take anyone at least three months on minimum wage with two incomes to pay off these medical bills. Barak Obama’s plan to institute a health care plan for everyone will relieve a huge burden on people and also allow them to stay above the poverty line. Heidi Shierholz, an economist at the Economic Policy Institute says, â€Å"Jacking the federal minimum wage from $7. 25 to $8. 25 would give a raise to 10 million workers, including many currently earning their state minimum wage† (Shierholz).This research supports that a minimum wage increase would help millions of people who work not only at the minimum wage but below it and just above it as well. While an increase of a few thousand dollars per year would rarely lift a person or a family out of poverty, it could ease the struggle to pay for groceries, child care or rent, and it adds meaning and digni ty to labor. A higher minimum wage is not enough, but it is very essential for the working poor. Minimum wage was created to keep businesses from taking advantage of their employees.Most of the workforce making minimum wage is young adults because companies feel that they can take advantage of them. Of the total affected workers, women suffer the most which is evidence that companies still have gender discrimination in the workplace. Companies are not only paying people small amounts of money but are also treating the women of America unfairly. If discrimination ended in the workplace then businesses would grow because they would have a more diverse workplace. Employees who are earned a higher wage would take their job more seriously.They would call in sick less often and would be more productive on the days they are at work. An employee working for a lower wage may spend a great deal of time job hunting, looking for a position that pays more but if employees are already earning a h igher wage, they would not have to be searching for a higher paying job. This would reduce employee turnover for companies. John Montgomery, economic analyst for ABC states that, â€Å"From the business perspective, wages come in as one of the most expensive running costs, and have to be paid whether you are taking money that day or not.However, if there were no minimum wage, there is no doubt that many unscrupulous businesses would exploit staff wherever they could† (Montgomery). Of these adult workers, over half work full time and another third work between twenty and thirty hours per week. This statistic shows that a big majority of adults on minimum wage are working at least twenty hours a week. So, if minimum wage increases, it could be a huge benefit because it could add a ten increase to a final salary and this would affect millions of people in our workforce in a positive way.For most small companies there is a major upside to a minimum wage increase because it can st imulate the economy. Usually when people make more money, sometimes they make lifestyle changes and they buy more which generates more revenue in the economy. Raising the minimum wage would be beneficial not only to business but to communities as well. Many poor families rely upon economic aid from social services to survive and these organizations not only cost the community tax payer but they also take away from services provided by local businesses.With an increased minimum wage, low wage workers would be less reliant on social services and more willing to spend their money in the local economy. Over time people would be making more money and then would be able to afford more things in their community. The lower class is dependent upon dollar stores because their low income does not support flexible spending. This creates unequal revenue to producers, so an increase of minimum wage would help communities as a whole because more business would have the chance to grow.Kai Filion, P olicy Analyst at the Economic Policy Institute, notes that â€Å"A recent study by economists at the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago examined 23 years of household spending data and found that an increase in the minimum wage lead households with a minimum wage to significantly increase their spending. † This research supports that even a slight increase of minimum wage would increase spending throughout communities which would be beneficial for the entire country because it would increase the local tax base.Many government programs that try to help people with low income place a tax burden directly on others. Raising taxes is not a necessary step in establishing a higher minimum wage because government should not be taxing companies, but asking them to pay more to their employees. An increase in payment to employees would increase business expenses which would help companies pay less in taxes. Therefore, an increased minimum wage has potential to aid in the growth of communit ies around the world.For Americans, we must support an increase of minimum wage to further promote a healthy economy and a decrease in poverty. Minimum wage is one program that promotes active participation in the labor market and if the amount of citizens on welfare is going to decline, they should be offered more jobs that can pay a livable wage. If minimum wage workers were paid a living wage, they would spend it in the local economy which would turn in to a powerful economic stimulus and the government would save money on a lot of expenses.Raising the current minimum wage is one way to reduce poverty, will help businesses grow, and could help many suffering communities throughout the nation. This step toward economic equality may be essential for workers of all classes to have opportunity for a better standard of living. Works Cited * â€Å"Minimum Wage Increase Would Help Sluggish Economy, Say Experts. † The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost. com, 07 June 2011. Web. 16 May 2012. . * â€Å"Http://www. abc. net. au/news/2012-05-16/unions-push-to-increase-state-min

The Milgram Experiment

The Milgram Experiment Outline Topic: The Milgram experiment I) The experiment A) Who was involved with the experiment? B) How they got participants C) What the subjects thought was happening i)Learning Task ii) Memory Study iii) Electric shock for wrong answer iv) â€Å"Prods† to continue the shocks D) What actually happened i) It was a test for obedience not memory ii) Vocal response from the victims (staged and set beforehand) II) The results A) How many experiments were performed B) How many people were tested C) How many continued the experiment D) The video of obedienceE) What types of people were tested, and what difference that made F) Differences between each test and results G) High levels of stress for subjects III) Why did he do the experiment A) To get an understanding of Nazis B) To prove the â€Å"answer to destructive obedience lay less in the power of personality and more in the power of situation† C) Social projection D) Test the idea that some people consider themselves better than others IV) The reaction A) Self realization B) Unethical i) Manipulation ii) Disregard for rights iii) Negligent of emotional well beingC) Argument in ethics caused new rules in APA guidelines V) Applications A) Nazi Germany B) U. S. wars C) Watergate Many experiments have been performed throughout the years. One of the most shocking would have to be the Milgram experiment performed by Stanley Milgram. The experiment was to test a person’s â€Å"Obedience to Authority† by seeing if he or she would cause harm to another just because they were told. The idea of obedience has been instilled in people since the time of Cain and Able, with regard to doing as God says. There are multiple reasons for Dr.Milgram to perform this experiment, however, some did not accept this and still believed it to be a violation of the subjects human rights. The results showed that even though people believed they would not cause extreme harm to another, they wo uld if put in the position where they were pressured to by an authoritative person. This resulted in chaos in the psychological community, and concluded in major changes to what is moral, and ethical, under the guidelines provided by APA. However, his results may be used to consider what happened during World War II, along with other U. S. ars, as well as what happened during the Watergate scandal. This experiment was performed many times. It began with Dr. Milgram placing an ad in a New Haven newspaper. The advertisement asked for people between the ages of 20 and 50, those who were not currently attending school, and from all types of professions. It also claimed the experiment would last one hour, and that it was to study memory. Those who participated in the experiment would receive four dollars for participating, and fifty cents for carfare, for the one hour of participation. From this ad, he did not get enough of a response so Dr.Milgram took names from a phone directory, and send fliers in the mail. The experiment itself was performed in the Interaction Laboratory of Yale University. It consisted of two people who were aware of what was happening, one called the â€Å"experimenter,† the person in charge of managing the experiment, and another called, â€Å"the victim. † A third, was one other person involved with the experiment called the â€Å"naive subject† who was the one being tested in this experiment. The experiment called for two different perspectives, which were what the â€Å"naive subject† believed to be happening, and what was really happening.The experiment was set up so that according to the â€Å"naive subject,† â€Å"the victim† was told to memorize a list of word pairs such as: blue box nice day wild duck etc. then in the testing sequence he [the naive subject] would read: blue: sky ink box lamp (Obedience 18). If â€Å"the victim† was able to select the correct corresponding word, the â €Å"naive subject† continued by saying the next word. However, if â€Å"the victim† did not answer correctly, or took too long in answering, the â€Å"naive subject† would have to administer a shock.After each wrong answer, the next wrong answer would result in a stronger shock. The generator, which was to administer the shocks to â€Å"the victim†: Ranged from 15 to 450 volts. The labels showed a 15-volt increment from one switch to the next, going from left to right. In addition, the following verbal designations were clearly indicated for groups of four switches, going from left to right: Slight Shock, Moderate Shock, Strong Shock, Very Strong Shock, Intense Shock, Extreme Intensity Shock, Danger: Severe Shock. Two switches after this last designation were simply marked XXX. (Obedience 20)The authenticity of the generator was validated by giving the â€Å"naive subject† a 45 volt shock to the wrist. The test which the â€Å"naive subject† thought was a test for memory, was actually to test a person’s willingness to follow authority. Therefore, as the voltage was to increase, there were acted protests by â€Å"the victim† which made the â€Å"naive subject† less willing to continue. However, if the â€Å"naive subject† was having second thoughts about continuing, the â€Å"experimenter† was to give â€Å"prods† each more aggressive as the â€Å"naive subject† continued to protest, Prod 1: Please continue, or, Please go on.Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue. Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue. Prod 4: You have no other choice you must go on (Obedience 21). Feeling obligated even though â€Å"the victim† responded with cries of pain and eventually no answer, the majority of those did continue. The results of this experiment were interesting. In the primary experiment 26 out of 40 people continued to shock a person with what he or s he believed to be 450 volts for an incorrect answer, or if they did not respond within a time limit set by the â€Å"experimenter. Another variation of this experiment he performed in which he: placed the learner closer to the teacher, including one in which the teacher actually had to force the learner’s hand onto a shock plate in order to punish him; about 30 percent of subjects continued the variation until the end (Fermaglich 86). There was another variation which used only women. The results were the same as those for men. Over three years, Dr. Milgram performed 24 different variations of his original experiment, and tested over 1,000 people. There was also one case in which Dr.Milgram videotaped a subject’s obedience, â€Å"In the full version of Milgram’s film Prozi [the subject] is shown ending up being completely obedient- that is, administering a 450-volt shock to the unseen learner† (Blass). Another result of this experiment was the experiment had a huge impact on those who were the subjects. It resulted in high levels of stress in those who were subjects, whether they obeyed or disobeyed, which Dr. Milgram himself admitted to happening, and so he had to provide a meeting for the subject and the learner, in order to try to alleviate that stress (Fermaglich 87).Although the experiment was performed many times, and on many different people, this proved that the majority will follow orders when they are given, even if it goes against their conscience. These were not the only results from this experiment; people had other thoughts about Dr. Milgram’s experiment. There have been many who have wondered why a man would perform a test that many people consider to be a violation of a person’s basic rights. Dr. Milgram had many reasons behind performed these experiments. Dr. Milgram believed â€Å"When you think of the long and gloomy history of man, you will ind more hideous crimes have been committed in the name o f obedience than have ever been committed in the name of rebellion† (Obedience 2). He wanted to be able to prove his belief that the â€Å"answer to destructive obedience lay less in the power of personality and more in the power of situation† (Slater 31). He also performed it with relation to the Holocaust, and since Milgram, â€Å"a Jewish man whose relatives had hidden from the Nazis and been interned in concentration camps, [he] constructed his experiments in order to understand Nazi evil† (Fermaglich 84).Another idea posed as a reason for Dr. Milgram’s performance was the thought of â€Å"self-other bias (Brown, 1986) [which] is the general tendency for people to rate themselves as better than ‘typical others’† (Geher, Bauman, Hubbard, and Legare 3). There were those who believed the experiment to be unethical, and others who seem to be enlightened with a sense of self realization. One person found Dr. Milgram’s experiment t o give him a better sense of who he was: I felt a shock of recognition, and the immediate knowledge that I could do such a thing, unsteady as I am.And I knew I could do such a thing, not because some strange set of circumstances propelled me to, no†¦It was not external. It was internal (Slater 62) However most other people who did not participate in the experiment did not feel this way, they felt this experiment was â€Å"the subject of enormous controversy, centered on the contention that his research subjects had been unethically manipulated, without due regard for their rights or emotional well-being† (Schwartz). In the field of psychology there was an uproar, with those who found the experiment to be reprehensible.One of those people was Diana Baumrind who questioned the obedience experiment, with concern for the welfare of the subjects, and curiosity over measures taken to protect those involved and voiced her concerns in American Psychologist (Individual 140). Dr. Baumrind’s article concerning the experiment resulted in the revision of APA ethical guidelines, which went with those laid down by the federal government, which limited the use of humans as subjects in the medical and psychological field (Fermaglich 103). Many found what Dr.Milgram did to be unethical, however because of it people now have a better understanding of what they are able to do, and they are able to apply his findings to other situations that have occurred, and may happen in the future. This experiment may be applied to a multitude of different subjects that are in a person’s every day life. The major subject would be the Nazis during World War II, which was a motive for Dr. Milgram to do the experiment in the beginning. It explores why a citizen who â€Å"ran the death camps seemed to be ordinary â€Å"decent† citizens, with consciences no different from those of any of us† (Velasquez et al). Dr.Milgram also compares the killing of Jews in t he gas chambers to the manufacturing of appliances, and he says all of those deaths could not have occurred if a large number of people did not obey orders (Obedience 1). The ideas that Dr. Milgram came up with were applied as an explanation for â€Å"the massacre of hundreds of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai and the criminal activities in Nixon’s White House: ‘Stanley Milgram†¦ demonstrated in the laboratory what Lt. William Calley and his unit would dramatize later in Mylai- that man’s behavior is almost invariably dominated by authority rather than by his own morality’† (Fermaglich 111).This idea is also exemplified on television, as on a recent episode of â€Å"Law and Order: S. V. U. † viewers encounter a manager of a fast food restaurant who blatantly obeys the orders of a voice over the phone saying that he is â€Å"Detective Milgram. † The manager is told that an employee stole the wallet of a customer, and â€Å"Detectiv e Milgram† tells the manager to strip the girl of all of her clothing except for her apron, and to perform a cavity search, to look for the wallet.Later in the episode we encounter the man who posed as â€Å"Detective Milgram† who performed his own variation of the experiment, because he had been like the manager, when he allowed the doctor to go against his advice, which resulted in the death of his wife. During school, a person may be faced with a similar situation. One being seeing a person cheat on a test. The person is put in a situation with two choices, neither desirable. The person may tell the teacher, which results in anger from the person who was told on, as well as a loss of time for that person to take their own test.The other option is to do nothing, which in the long run will hurt the student as he or she never learned the material, as he or she was suppose to. Typically a student will choose the latter, and ignore the situation, which ends up hurting the other student. This examination can be viewed on a vast number of levels, but that does not change the facts and ideas behind what happened. Dr. Milgram performed a venture which is thought to have been unethical, as he tested a person’s willingness to follow orders and do as he or she was told.He discovered the majority would actually do so, even if they believed they were hurting an innocent person. The controversial research has had a variety of impacts on every different person. For some they have a self realization, thinking of why type of person he or she is and if they are sheep, blindly following authority. Works Cited for Research Paper: Blass, Thomasm. â€Å"The Milgram Obedience Experiment: Support for a Cognitive View of Defensive Attribution. † The Journal of Social Psychology (1996). library. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . Fermaglich, Kirsten. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares : Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America, 1957-1965. Waltham, Mass. : Brand eis University Press, 2006. Geher, Glenn, Kathleen P. Bauman, Sara Elizabeth Kay Hubbard, and Jared Richard Legare. â€Å"Self and Other Obedience Estimates: Biases and Moderators. † The Journal of Social Psychology 142. 6 (2002): 677. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. Milgram, Stanley. Obedience to Authority. New York: Harper Perennial, 1974.Milgram, Stanley. The Individual in a Social World: Essays and Experiments. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1977. Schwartz, Earl. â€Å"Why Some Ask Why. † Judaism 53. 3/4 (2004): 230. elibrary. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. Slater, Lauren. Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. New York: W. W. Norton, 2004. Velasquez, Manuel, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S. J. , and Michael J. Meyer. â€Å"Conscience and Authority. † Santa Clara University. 12/03/2009 . The Milgram Experiment Stanley Milgram: ‘electric shock' experiments (1963) – also showed the power of the situation in influencing behaviour. 65% of people could be easily induced into giving a stranger an electric shock of 450V (enough to kill someone). 100% of people could be influenced into giving a 275V shock. The Milgram Experiment Stanley Milgram (1963) Experiment: Focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. Investigate: Whether Germans were particularly obedient to authority figures as this was a common explanation for the Nazi killings in World War II.Milgram selected participants for his experiment by advertising for male participants to take part in a study of learning at Yale University. The procedure was that the participant was paired with another person and they drew lots to find out who would be the ‘learner’ and who would be the ‘teacher’. The draw was fixed so that the participant was always the teacher, and the l earner was one of Milgram’s confederates (pretending to be a real participant). The learner (a confederate called Mr.Wallace) was taken into a room and had electrodes attached to his arms, and the teacher and researcher went into a room next door that contained an electric shock generator and a row of switches marked from 15 volts (Slight Shock) to 375 volts (Danger: Severe Shock) to 450 volts (XXX). Milgram's Experiment Aim: Milgram (1963) was interested in researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person. Stanley Milgram was interested in how easily ordinary people could be influenced into committing atrocities for example, Germans in WWII. Procedure:Volunteers were recruited for a lab experiment investigating â€Å"learning† (ethics: deception). Participants were 40 males, aged between 20 and 50, (bias: All male) whose jobs ranged from unskilled to professional. At the beginning of the experiment they were introduce d to another participant, who was actually a confederate of the experimenter (Milgram). They drew straws to determine their roles – leaner or teacher – although this was fixed and the confederate always ended to the learner. There was also an â€Å"experimenter† dressed in a white lab coat, played by an actor (not Milgram). The â€Å"learner† (Mr.Wallace) was strapped to a chair in another room with electrodes. After he has learned a list of word pairs given him to learn, the â€Å"teacher† tests him by naming a word and asking the learner to recall its partner/pair from a list of four possible choices. The teacher is told to administer an electric shock every time the learner makes a mistake, increasing the level of shock each time. There were 30 switches on the shock generator marked from 15 volts (slight shock) to 450 (danger – severe shock). The learner gave mainly wrong answers (on purpose) and for each of these the teacher gave him an electric shock.When the teacher refused to administer a shock and turned to the experimenter for guidance, he was given the standard instruction /order (consisting of 4 prods): Prod 1: please continue. Prod 2:  the experiment requires you to continue. Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue. Prod 4: you have no other choice but to continue. Results: 65% (two-thirds) of participants (i. e. teachers) continued to the highest level of 450 volts. All the participants continued to 300 volts. Milgram did more than one experiment – he carried out 18 variations of his study.All he did was alter the situation (IV) to see how this affected obedience (DV). Conclusion: Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up. Obey parents, teachers, anyone in authority etc. Milgram summed up in the article â€Å"The Perils of Obedience† (Milgram 1974), writing: â€Å"The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations.I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects’ [participants’] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects’ [participants’] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation. Factors Affecting Obedience The Milgram experiment was carried out many times whereby Milgram varied the basic procedure (changed the IV). By doing this Milgram c ould identify which factors affected obedience (the DV). Status of Location| Personal Responsibility| * The orders were given in an important location (Yale University) – when Milgram’s study was conducted in a run-down office in the city, obedience levels dropped. * This suggests that prestige increases obedience. | *   When there is less personal responsibility obedience increases. When participants could instruct an assistant to press the switches, 95% (compared to 65% in the original study) shocked to the maximum 450 volts. * This relates to Milgram's Agency Theory. | Legitimacy of Authority Figure| Status of Authority Figure| * People tend to obey orders from other people if they recognize their authority as morally right and / or legally based. * This response to legitimate authority is learned in a variety of situations, for example in the family, school and workplace. | *   Milgram’s experimenter wore a laboratory coat (a symbol of scientific experti se) which gave him a high status. But when the experimenter dressed in everyday clothes obedience was very low. * The  uniform  of the authority figure can give them status. | Peer Support| Proximity of Authority Figure| * Peer support – if a person has the social support of their friend(s) then obedience is less likely. * Also the presence of others who are seen to disobey the authority figure reduces the level of obedience. This happened in Milgram’s experiment when there was a â€Å"disobedient model†. | *   Authority figure distant: It is easier to resist the orders from an authority figure if they are not close by.When the experimenter instructed and prompted the teacher by telephone from another room, obedience fell to 20. 5%. * When the authority figure is close by then obedience is more likely. | Methodological Issues The  Milgram studies  were conducted in laboratory type conditions and we must ask if this tells us much about real-life situati ons. We obey in a variety of real-life situations that are far more subtle than instructions to give people electric shocks, and it would be interesting to see what factors operate in everyday obedience.The sort of situation Milgram investigated would be more suited to a military context. Milgram's sample was biased: The participants in Milgram's study were all male. Do the findings transfer to females? In Milgram's study the participants were a self-selecting sample. This is because they became participants only by electing to respond to a newspaper advertisement (selecting themselves). They may also have a typical â€Å"volunteer personality† – not all the newspaper readers responded so perhaps it takes this personality type to do so.Finally, they probably all had a similar income since they were willing to spend some hours working for a given amount of money. Ethical Issues *   Deception  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ the participants actually believed they were shocking a real pers on, and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram's *   Protection of participants  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Participants were exposed to extremely stressful situations that may have the potential to cause psychological harm. * However, Milgram did  debrief  the participants fully after the experiment and also followed up after a period of time to ensure that they came to no harm.